Sensory remapping: a possible therapy option / Remapeamento sensorial: uma possível opção de terapia

The human sensory receptors are morphologically specialized to transduce specific stimuli into the brain. However, when an injury occurs, mainly in the spinal cord, which can be of traumatic or non-traumatic origin, it provokes various degrees of sensory deficits, autonomic, motor and sphincter dysfunction below the level of the injury. Based on this, a new therapeutic modality is being proposed by neuroscientist Miguel Nicolelis, which is based on the brain-machine interface, that is, using other pathways so that the information can reach the cerebral cortex and thus be consciously processed (AU).

Os receptores sensoriais humanos são morfologicamente especializados para realizar a transdução de estímulos específicos para o encéfalo. Entretanto, quando ocorre uma lesão, principalmente, na medula espinal, que pode ser de origem traumática e não traumática, provocam diversos graus de déficits sensoriais, disfunção autônoma, motora e esfincteriana, abaixo do nível da lesão. Com base nisso, uma nova modalidade terapêutica está sendo proposto pelo neurocientista Miguel Nicolelis, que tem como base a interface cérebro máquina, isto é, utilizar-se de outras vias para que as informações possam chegar no córtex cerebral e assim serem processadas conscientemente.Palavras-chave: Interfaces cérebro-computador, Neurociências, Órgãos dos sentidos (AU).

Impact of Sensory Afferences in Postural Control Quantified by Force Platform: A Protocol for Systematic Review.

Older adults' postural balance is a critical domain of research as balance deficit is an important risk factor for falls that can lead to severe injuries and death. Considering the effects of ageing on sensory systems, we propose that posturographic evaluation with a force platform exploring the effect of sensory deprivation or perturbation on balance could help understand postural control alterations in the elderly. The aim of the future systematic review and meta-analysis described in this protocol is to explore the capacity of older adults to maintain their balance during sensory perturbations, and compare the effect of perturbation between the sensory channels contributing to balance. Seven databases will be searched for studies evaluating older adults' balance under various sensory conditions. After evaluating the studies' risk of bias, results from similar studies (i.e., similar experimental conditions and posturographic markers) will be aggregated. This protocol describes a future review that is expected to provide a better understanding of changes in sensory systems of balance due to ageing, and therefore perspectives on fall assessment, prevention, and rehabilitation.

Charging Up the Periphery: Glial Ionic Regulation in Sensory Perception.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) receives diverse sensory stimuli from the environment and transmits this information to the central nervous system (CNS) for subsequent processing. Thus, proper functions of cells in peripheral sense organs are a critical gate-keeper to generating appropriate animal sensory behaviors, and indeed their dysfunction tracks sensory deficits, sensorineural disorders, and aging. Like the CNS, the PNS comprises two major cell types, neurons (or sensory cells) and glia (or glia-like supporting neuroepithelial cells). One classic function of PNS glia is to modulate the ionic concentration around associated sensory cells. Here, we review current knowledge of how non-myelinating support cell glia of the PNS regulate the ionic milieu around sensory cell endings across species and systems. Molecular studies reviewed here suggest that, rather than being a passive homeostatic response, glial ionic regulation may in fact actively modulate sensory perception, implying that PNS glia may be active contributors to sensorineural information processing. This is reminiscent of emerging studies suggesting analogous roles for CNS glia in modulating neural circuit processing. We therefore suggest that deeper molecular mechanistic investigations into critical PNS glial functions like ionic regulation are essential to comprehensively understand sensorineural health, disease, and aging.

Levinsenia species (Annelida: Polychaeta: Paraonidae) from the Sea of Marmara with descriptions of two new species.

The present study deals with the diversity of the genus Levinsenia in the Sea of Marmara. The specimens of Levinsenia were collected on soft and hard substrata at depths ranging from 10 to 500 m at 98 stations in 2013. Among the material, two new species, namely Levinsenia longobranchiata n. sp. and L. vulgaris n. sp., and five already known species (L. demiri, L. kosswigi, L. materi, L. marmarensis, L. tribranchiata) were found. Levinsenia longobranchiata n. sp. is mainly characterized by having very long branchiae (longer than the body width) and five prebranchial chaetigers without notopodial postchaetal lobes. Levinsenia vulgaris n. sp. is mainly characterized by having short branchiae (shorter than the body width) and five prebranchial chaetigers with notopodial postchaetal lobes. The SEM images enabled us to define some previously neglected/indistinct characters in the taxonomy of Levinsenia such as the degree of the fusion of the branchiae with the notopodia; the morphology of dorso-lateral irregular pores, cheek organ, ciliated patches and lateral organs on the lateral sides of the prostomium; and the shape and distribution of the lateral sense organs along the body. All species found in the region were presented and described, by also taking these novel characters into account.

The diversity of the genus Aricidea (Polychaeta: Paraonidae) from the Sea of Marmara, with descriptions of two new species and two new records for the Mediterranean fauna.

This paper reports 13 Aricidea species from the Sea of Marmara. The Aricidea specimens were collected at 98 stations in the region in 2012 and 2013 from soft and hard substrata at depths ranging from 0 to 1200 m. Among the material, two new species, namely Aricidea (Acmira) katzmanni n. sp. and Aricidea (Acmira) pseudoassimilis n. sp., and 11 known species were discovered. Aricidea mirunekoa and A. bulbosa are new records for the Mediterranean fauna; A. (Acmira) annae and A. (Aricidea) wassi are new records for the Sea of Marmara. Aricidea (Acmira) katzmanni n. sp. is characterized by having a long, digitiform antenna; no notopodial papillae on the posterior part of the branchial region; and hook shaped modified neurochaetae with a strong hood and fragile arista. Aricidea (Acmira) pseudoassimilis n. sp. is characterized by having a short, digitiform antenna; interramal lobes between notopodia and neuropodia; hook-shaped modified neurochaeta that gets subterminally thinner with a rounded tip. As A. (Strelzovia) bulbosa has been only previously reported from the Gulf of Suez (Red Sea), it could be a new alien species for the Sea of Marmara and Mediterranean Sea. Based on the characters that have been overlooked so far, the subspecies A. suecica meridionalis and A. capensis bansei were raised to species level, A. meridionalis n. stat. and A. bansei n. stat. The present paper reports the usage of ciliary bands and slits on the prostomium and body, swellings/ridges in the branchial region, and the shape and distribution of sense organs in the taxonomy of Aricidea. All species were described and figured.

Ultrastructure of the Antennae and Sensilla of Nyssomyia intermedia (Diptera: Psychodidae), Vector of American Cutaneous Leishmaniasis.

The antennal sensilla and the antenna of females Nyssomyia intermedia, one of the main vectors of American cutaneous leishmaniasis, were studied by scanning electron microscopy. The main goal was to characterize the quantity, typology, and topography of the sensilla with particular attention to the olfactory types. The insects were captured in the city of Corte de Pedra, State of Bahia, Brazil, by CDC-type light traps and raised in a laboratory as a new colony. Fourteen well-differentiated sensilla were identified, among six cuticular types: trichoidea, campaniformia, squamiformia, basiconica, chaetica, and coeloconica. Of these, six sensilla were classified as olfactory sensilla due to their specific morphological features. Smaller noninnervated pilosities of microtrichiae type were also evidenced by covering all antennal segments. The antennal segments differ in shapes and sizes, and the amount and distribution of types and subtypes of sensilla. This study may foment future taxonomic and phylogenetic analysis for a better evolutionary understanding of the sand flies. Besides, it may assist the targeting of future electrophysiological studies by Single Sensillum Recording, and aim to develop alternative measures of monitoring and control of this vector.

Cell-type-specific promoters for C. elegans glia.

Glia shape the development and function of the C. elegans nervous system, especially its sense organs and central neuropil (nerve ring). Cell-type-specific promoters allow investigators to label or manipulate individual glial cell types, and therefore provide a key tool for deciphering glial function. In this technical resource, we compare the specificity, brightness, and consistency of cell-type-specific promoters for C. elegans glia. We identify a set of promoters for the study of seven glial cell types (F16F9.3, amphid and phasmid sheath glia; F11C7.2, amphid sheath glia only; grl-2, amphid and phasmid socket glia; hlh-17, cephalic (CEP) sheath glia; and grl-18, inner labial (IL) socket glia) as well as a pan-glial promoter (mir-228). We compare these promoters to promoters that are expressed more variably in combinations of glial cell types (delm-1 and itx-1). We note that the expression of some promoters depends on external conditions or the internal state of the organism, such as developmental stage, suggesting glial plasticity. Finally, we demonstrate an approach for prospectively identifying cell-type-specific glial promoters using existing single-cell sequencing data, and we use this approach to identify two novel promoters specific to IL socket glia (col-53 and col-177).

Sensorial Hierarchy in Octopus vulgaris's Food Choice: Chemical vs. Visual.

Octopus vulgaris possesses highly sophisticated sense organs, processed by the nervous system to generate appropriate behaviours such as finding food, avoiding predators, identifying conspecifics, and locating suitable habitat. Octopus uses multiple sensory modalities during the searching and selection of food, in particular, the chemosensory and visual cues. Here, we examined food choice in O. vulgaris in two ways: (1) We tested octopus's food preference among three different kinds of food, and established anchovy as the preferred choice (66.67%, Friedman test p < 0.05); (2) We exposed octopus to a set of five behavioural experiments in order to establish the sensorial hierarchy in food choice, and to evaluate the performance based on the visual and chemical cues, alone or together. Our data show that O. vulgaris integrates sensory information from chemical and visual cues during food choice. Nevertheless, food choice resulted in being more dependent on chemical cues than visual ones (88.9%, Friedman test p < 0.05), with a consistent decrease of the time spent identifying the preferred food. These results define the role played by the senses with a sensorial hierarchy in food choice, opening new perspectives on the O. vulgaris' predation strategies in the wild, which until today were considered to rely mainly on visual cues.

Distribution and development of the external sense organ pattern on the appendages of postembryonic and adult stages of the spider Parasteatoda tepidariorum.

Spiders are equipped with a large number of innervated cuticular specializations, which respond to various sensory stimuli. The physiological function of mechanosensory organs has been analysed in great detail in some model spider species (e.g. Cupiennius salei); however, much less is known about the distribution and function of chemosensory organs. Furthermore, our knowledge on how the sense organ pattern develops on the spider appendages is limited. Here we analyse the development of the pattern and distribution of six different external mechano- and chemosensory organs in all postembryonic stages and in adult male and female spiders of the species Parasteatoda tepidariorum. We show that except for small mechanosensory setae, external sense organs appear in fixed positions on the pedipalps and first walking legs, arranged in longitudinal rows along the proximal-distal axis or in invariable positions relative to morphological landmarks (joints, distal tarsal tip). A comparison to other Entelegynae spiders shows that these features are conserved. We hope that this study lays the foundation for future molecular analysis to address the question how this conserved pattern is generated.

[Neuroendocrine neoplasms of the auditory, olfactory, and visual sensory organs]. / Neuroendokrine Neoplasien der Sinnesorgane Ohr, Riechorgan und Auge.

Neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are infrequent in sensory organs. There are well-differentiated neuroendocrine neoplasms that should be classified as neuroendocrine tumors, in analogy to their gastrointestinal counterparts, however the nomenclature is inconsistent. The best defined entities are neuroendocrine tumors in the middle ear and ectopic pituitary adenoma in the sphenoid region. Poorly differentiated NENs most often arise in the olfactory organ and nasal cavity that are represented by olfactory neuroblastomas and poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinomas. They have several mimickers such as the sinonasal undifferentiated carcinoma, poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma, mucosal malignant melanoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma/primitive neuroectodermal tumor and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Cell interactions, signals and transcriptional hierarchy governing placode progenitor induction.

In vertebrates, cranial placodes contribute to all sense organs and sensory ganglia and arise from a common pool of Six1/Eya2+ progenitors. Here we dissect the events that specify ectodermal cells as placode progenitors using newly identified genes upstream of the Six/Eya complex. We show in chick that two different tissues, namely the lateral head mesoderm and the prechordal mesendoderm, gradually induce placode progenitors: cells pass through successive transcriptional states, each identified by distinct factors and controlled by different signals. Both tissues initiate a common transcriptional state but over time impart regional character, with the acquisition of anterior identity dependent on Shh signalling. Using a network inference approach we predict the regulatory relationships among newly identified transcription factors and verify predicted links in knockdown experiments. Based on this analysis we propose a new model for placode progenitor induction, in which the initial induction of a generic transcriptional state precedes regional divergence.

Evolutionary variation in neural gene expression in the developing sense organs of the crustacean Daphnia magna.

Arthropods have numerous sense organs, which are adapted to their habitat. While some sense organs are similar in structure and function in all arthropod groups, structural differences in functionally related sense organs have been described, as well as the absence of particular sense organ subtypes in individual arthropod groups. Here we address the question of how the diverse structures of arthropod sense organs have evolved by analysing the underlying molecular developmental processes in a crustacean, an arthropod group that has been neglected so far. We have investigated the development of four types of chemo- and mechanosensory sense organs in the branchiopod Daphnia magna (Cladocera) that either cannot be found in arthropods other than crustaceans or represent adaptations to an aquatic environment. The formation of the sensory organ precursors shows greater similarity to the arthropod taxa Chelicerata and Myriapoda than to the more closely related insects. All analysed sense organ types co-express the proneural genes ASH and atonal regardless of their structure and function. In contrast, in Drosophila melanogaster, ASH and atonal expression does not overlap and the genes confer different sense organ subtype identities. We performed experimental co-expression studies in D. melanogaster and found that the combinatorial expression of ato and ASH can change the external structure of sense organs. Our results indicate a central role for ASH and Atonal family members in the emergence of structural variations in arthropod sense organs.

[Pharmacological therapeutic intervention in mild cognitive impairment]. / Intervención terapéutica farmacológica del deterioro cognitivo leve.

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a syndrome encompassing affective and behavioural symptoms and various subtypes. MCI is a heterogeneous clinical entity with varied causes (degenerative, vascular, psychiatric, non-neurological disorders), and there is wide variation in symptoms and clinical course. There are multiple causes and consequently various treatments can be applied and should be combined with non-pharmacological measures. This article describes both preventive and therapeutic pharmacological interventions: control of vascular risk factors, avoidance of iatrogeny, use of nutraceuticals, CDP-choline, and Ginkgo biloba EGb 761®, and improvement in sense organs.

Dissecting the pre-placodal transcriptome to reveal presumptive direct targets of Six1 and Eya1 in cranial placodes.

The pre-placodal ectoderm, marked by the expression of the transcription factor Six1 and its co-activator Eya1, develops into placodes and ultimately into many cranial sensory organs and ganglia. Using RNA-Seq in Xenopus laevis we screened for presumptive direct placodal target genes of Six1 and Eya1 by overexpressing hormone-inducible constructs of Six1 and Eya1 in pre-placodal explants, and blocking protein synthesis before hormone-inducing nuclear translocation of Six1 or Eya1. Comparing the transcriptome of explants with non-induced controls, we identified hundreds of novel Six1/Eya1 target genes with potentially important roles for placode development. Loss-of-function studies confirmed that target genes encoding known transcriptional regulators of progenitor fates (e.g. Sox2, Hes8) and neuronal/sensory differentiation (e.g. Ngn1, Atoh1, Pou4f1, Gfi1) require Six1 and Eya1 for their placodal expression. Our findings provide insights into the gene regulatory network regulating placodal neurogenesis downstream of Six1 and Eya1 suggesting new avenues of research into placode development and disease.

Rethinking the senses and their interactions: the case for sensory pluralism.

I argue for sensory pluralism. This is the view that there are many forms of sensory interaction and unity, and no single category that classifies them all. In other words, sensory interactions do not form a single natural kind. This view suggests that how we classify sensory systems (and the experiences they generate) partly depends on our explanatory purposes. I begin with a detailed discussion of the issue as it arises for our understanding of thermal perception, followed by a general account and defense of sensory pluralism.

Skin structure in the snout of the Australian lungfish, Neoceratodus forsteri (Osteichthyes: Dipnoi).

Many fossil lungfish have a system of mineralised tubules in the dermis of the snout, branching extensively and radiating towards the epidermis. The tubules anastomose in the superficial layer of the dermis, forming a plexus consisting of two layers of vessels, with branches that expand into pore canals and flask organs, flanked by cosmine nodules where these are present. Traces of this system are found in the Australian lungfish, Neoceratodus forsteri, consisting of branching tubules in the dermis, a double plexus below the epidermis and dermal papillae entering the epidermis without reaching the surface. In N. forsteri, the tubules, the plexus and the dermal papillae consist of thick, unmineralised connective tissue, enclosing fine blood vessels packed with lymphocytes. Tissues in the epidermis and the dermis of N. forsteri are not associated with deposits of calcium, which is below detectable limits in the skin of the snout at all stages of the life cycle. Canals of the sensory line system, with mechanoreceptors, are separate from the tubules, the plexus and the dermal papillae, as are the electroreceptors in the epidermis. The system of tubules, plexus, dermal papillae and lymphatic capillaries may function to protect the tissues of the snout from infection.

The morphology of the cibarial armature and sensilla of Mansonia titillans, Psorophora cingulata, Coquillettidia arribalzagae, Culex coronator and Limatus durhamii (Diptera: Culicidae)

A detailed description of the cibarial armature of the Neotropical mosquitoes Mansonia titillans, Psorophora cingulata, Coquillettidia arribalzagae, Culex coronator and Limatus durhamii, is presented. A sample of 15 specimens of each species was taken from the collections of two mosquito ecological projects located at Santa Clara, San Carlos, Alajuela and from La Selva, Sarapiqui, Heredia, Costa Rica. Each specimen, preserved in alcohol, was cleared, put into a mounting medium, head separated from body and eyes pinched to expose the cibarial armature and sense organs; finally a coverslip was added for a permanent slide. The bodies of all the mosquitoes were also mounted onto slides. The descriptions of the cibarial armatures were based on the characteristics of the dome, body, transversal bar, lateral flanges and cibarial teeth. Also the number, distribution and type of the sense organs are given. From the analysis, and comparison with known descriptions of other neotropical species, we conclude that the five species studied show enough characteristics for species recognition purposes.

Se presenta una detallada descripción de la armadura cibarial y órganos sensoriales de hembras de mosquitos de cinco especies neotropicales, Mansonia titillans, Psorophora cingulata, Coquillettidia arribalzagae, Culex coronator y Limatus durhamii. Se tomó una muestra de 15 especimenes de cada especie de las colecciones de mosquitos de dos proyectos ecológicos localizados en Santa Clara, San Carlos, Alajuela y de La Selva, Sarapiquí, Heredia, Costa Rica. Los especimenes, preservados en alcohol de 85°, se aclararon en solución de Nesbitt, se disecaron las cabezas y se punzó los ojos compuestos para exponer la armadura cibarial y sus órganos sensoriales. Se utilizó el medio de Hoyer para hacer las preparaciones fijas. Asimismo los cuerpos de los especimenes fueron colocados en el medio de montaje. A todas las preparaciones se les colocó un cubreobjeto. Se utilizó la microscopia de contraste de fases para lograr una mejor apreciación de las estructuras. La descripción de las armaduras cibariales se basó en las características del domo, cuerpo, barra transversal y barras laterales, y dientes cibariales. También se informa el número, distribución y tipo de los órganos sensoriales. Hay diferencias estructurales suficientes para distinguir las cinco especies estudiadas entre sí y de otras especies de la culicidofauna neotropical.

The sense organs in theDrosophila larva and their relation to the embryonic pattern of sensory neurons.

Various types of sense organs are arranged in a highly reproducible pattern on the thoracic and abdominal segments ofDrosophila embryos and larvae. We describe this pattern and identify the neurons that innervate each sense organ. This identification is confirmed by the analysis of partial deficiencies for the scute region, which delete specifically some of the sense organs and their innervating neurons. Since our description of the sense organs accounts for all the sensory neurons that have been identified in the embryo, we believe that this description is accurate and complete, except in the terminal segment, where some sense organs remain to be identified.

Teratological Development in the Cephalic Anatomy of the Nematode Romanomermis culicivorax.

Adults of Romanomermis culicivorax obtained from mass cultures were examined by scanning and transmission electron microscopy to determine the organization of their anterior sense organs. The normal pattern apparently consists of two lateral amphids plus six cephalic papillae. Lateral cephalic papillae contain two sense organs, each with a cuticular pore, while subdorsal and subventral papillae have three sense organs, each with a cuticular pore. About 30% of females and 80% of males examined showed aberrant developments in these sense organs. Both cuticle and underlying cells (hypodermis and neurons) are affected; some sense organs are absent while others are incompletely formed. Few aberrant worms were found in a smaller collection of worms reared in lower population densities. Perhaps aberrant forms are examples of teratological development resulting from, or promoted by, conditions used for mass rearing of biological control agents.